Women, Work And The Law: The Story of Prostitution In Malaysia

Brothels will never be allowed in Malaysia. No way.^[1]

That was the response of Communications Minister, Fahmi Fadzil in response to a suggestion by actor Rosyam Nor that brothels are necessary to satisfy the natural desires of foreign workers in Malaysia.

Rosyam Nor, in his podcast Hitam Putih Kehidupan, argued: 

There are about 3 million foreign workers in our country, many of whom left their wives behind. As men, if they can’t release their urges at brothels, where will they? What if they end up attacking our wives and daughters?^[2]

Malaysian law is clear on the matter. Section 373 of the Penal Code suppresses brothels, while Section 372B criminalises soliciting for prostitution^[2].

However, the reality is that prostitution has existed in Malaysia since colonial times and continues to be deeply rooted in society today. Official figures estimate that there are around 45,000 sex workers in Malaysia, but unofficial estimates suggest as many as 150,000^[3]. 

Of the official count, 21,000 are cisgender female sex workers, and around 24,000 are transgender sex workers, a group driven into the industry by discrimination and limited job opportunities^[4].

The sex industry in Malaysia was valued at approximately US$963 million (RM3.2 billion), ranking the country 16th out of 27 nations in terms of revenue from sex work^[3]. The industry is estimated to contribute between RM5 billion and RM7 billion annually to the economy. A 2009 report even noted that one sex worker indirectly creates about seven jobs outside the industry^[5].

The Seed Of Prostitution In Malaysia 

Believe it or not, prostitution is often referred to as the world’s oldest profession. In Malaysia, the sex industry took root as early as 1718 during the Dutch occupation^[6]. However, it was during British colonial rule that brothels began to flourish. 

In 1786, British policy encouraged Chinese settlers to migrate to Malaya, and they brought with them the Msui Tsui (brothel) system to meet the demands of male settlers^[7].

Throughout Malaya, migrant labourers worked in mines and plantations, but due to a significant gender imbalance—where men far outnumbered women—the demand for sexual labour grew^[6]. With limited employment opportunities for women at the time, sex work became an economically viable option.

It’s essential to view prostitution in colonial Malaya within the context of its time rather than through the modern lens of ethics. 

Prostitution was a legalised profession, alongside other sanctioned vices like opium smoking and gambling. It played a significant role in colonial society, both economically and socially^[8]. Wealthy individuals often kept mistresses and concubines, and prostitution was woven into the fabric of colonial life.

Georgetown, like other cosmopolitan commercial centres in Southeast Asia, was rife with prostitutes and brothels, where cash was traded for cheap pleasures like sex and opium. These establishments had enticing names symbolising fragrance, entertainment, pleasure, passion, and happiness. 

By 1893, prostitution was well-established in the Straits Settlements, with 958 licensed prostitutes in Penang and 150 in Malacca^[8].

By 1899, over a hundred brothels operated in Penang’s red-light district. Along Campbell Street in 1900, notable brothels included Cuixiang Lou, Dongyang, Fengyi Lou, and Fuhe Tang, among others. Many of these names were imported from China, reflecting a strong cultural connection between Chinese immigrants and their homeland^[8].

The houses of pleasure were identified by red lanterns hung at the door. Senior citizens recall these dens as places to relax and enjoy a range of services… The well-dressed, well-mannered courtesans served opium, tea and liquor, and provided musical entertainment and companionship. – Khoo Salma Nasution, Penang Heritage Trust^[9]

As the sex industry surged, the British viewed it as a public health concern rather than a moral issue. To combat the spread of venereal diseases, particularly from Asian men to European men working alongside them, the Contagious Disease Ordinance (CDO) of 1870 was introduced^[10]. 

The ordinance required sex workers to register and undergo compulsory medical examinations, as women were unfortunately seen as the primary agents of disease transmission. 

The CDO also designated red-light districts, driven in part by the belief that the hot equatorial climate heightened sexual passions.

Sold, Traded & Exploited – Women As Commodity 

The women who were part of the trade came from all parts of the archipelago and even farther.

In Penang specifically, the Japanese and Chinese prostitutes, known as Karayuki-san and Ah Ku, were prominent^[8]. Their presence resulted from a vast international trafficking network based in seaports like Nagasaki, Shanghai, and Hong Kong, with Singapore acting as a central hub. 

Driven by extreme poverty and oppressive taxes, many families sold their daughters into prostitution^[8]. These women were often deceived with promises of legitimate jobs but ended up in the sex trade across Asia.

By 1910, half of the 207 Japanese citizens in Penang were involved in the sex trade, operating out of areas like Cintra Street (formerly known as Little Japan, or Jipun Sin Lor (‘Japanese New Road)^[11]. 

The profits from their work helped fund various legitimate Japanese businesses in the city. Today, the sacrifices of the Karayuki-san are commemorated in Japan, where monuments honour their contributions. 

The book and film “Sandakan Brothel No. 8” document their forgotten history, highlighting the exploitation and discrimination they faced both abroad and upon their return to Japan.

Within these passion-fueled establishments, it was common to find prostitutes as young as 10 or 11 years old^[9], sometimes sold off by their mothers or grandmothers for as little as £10 and being ‘rented’ to customers for around $150-$500 depending on the women’s age, virginity, beauty, and origin. Some would be peddled from town to town^[12]. 

But as beauty fades and ageing takes hold of the prostitutes – their stories take a more sinister tone. Some succumbed to venereal diseases, and lived their final days in a kongsi house, while others turned to suicide^[8].

Behind Closed Doors

In Penang, high-class brothels were on Campbell Street, while lower-class ones served coolies and rickshaw pullers on Kuala Kangsar Road. Despite its prevalence, the Chinese community neither openly accepted nor strongly protested licensed prostitution until the 1930s^[8]. 

The British colonial government, which introduced the problem into society, eventually attempted to provide a solution as well.

In 1931, sex work was criminalised and the jurisdiction was broadened, removing girls suspected of being linked to immoral activities further stating that the age for a girl to be officially independent to make her own sexual decision is 19 years old^[6]. 

What it gave rise to however was the industry of sly prostitution where operations of the flesh trade took place outside of licensed brothels.

The early 1920s saw economic turmoil and the changing face of Japan as it pursued its imperial ambitions. For the British, the 1909 concubinage circular by Lord Crewe, which discouraged officials from keeping mistresses, significantly impacted the industry^[8].

As brothels gradually closed, sly prostitutes—mainly Chinese, Malay, Siamese, and later Japanese—began to attract clients from Europeans, Malays, and wealthy Chinese seeking discreet encounters.

Malay women’s involvement in sly prostitution was influenced by societal factors. Many were brides at the mere age of 13-14 years old, they were divorced once their husband was tired of them. 

Before marriage a Malay woman is kept carefully shut up and looked after, but as a divorcee, she enjoys a practically unrestrained freedom to which she has hitherto been unaccustomed. In addition to this she has been put to shame by her husband and it is small wonder that she decides to give reins to her sexual desires, and have a good time either as an enthusiastic amateur or a professional. In the present state of education of Malay women a divorcee unless she happens to get remarried, has few interests to which she can devote herself. In the case of women, it was the ease with which a Malay man could divorce his wife that drove them to become sly prostitutes. – W.T. Chapman, Secretary of Chinese Affairs^[8]

Cinemas featuring soundtrack movies, like Majestic, Cathay, and Odeon, along with the growing number of dance halls in town, became popular venues for solicitation.

Among Europeans, the feverish and insatiable thirst for gaiety and excitement which finds its e expression locally in indulgence in the various sensuous forms of jazz dances. I believe that the result of the excitement produced by participation in these dances is to drive many young men out to find women willing to satisfy the desires aroused. – W.T. Chapman, Secretary of Chinese Affairs^[8]

With no income, former prostitutes found different avenues to work in. Some work at storefronts or restaurants, but the stigma of their true intention was hard to shed: 

They think that this sort of occupation is legal and that the Government has no right to prohibit it. Moreover, they think that they can do whatever they like. Now, if we were to look at their dresses and their behaviour, we can be perfectly sure that eight or nine out of ten of these girl accountants were once either licensed or unlicensed prostitutes.  – Excerpt from an editorial column of a Chinese newspaper, Chung Hwa Siang Pao^[8]

In the early 20th century, sly prostitution also brought forth patrons from two religions with restrictions on extramarital or sex outside of wedlock. The Sikhs’ young age became part of the denominator. 

There are very few Sikhs here who are married, subsequently the bulk of this class of the community are driven to the cult of sly prostitution, instead of patronising the inmates of regular brothels. – W.T. Chapman, Secretary of Chinese Affairs^[8]

For Malay men, the high dowry prices often push the marriage card off the table.

It was said that the amount, which used to be $22.50, had increased as much as between $100 to $125. Thus, instead of marrying in their teens, Malay males tended to postpone it to 25 or 26. As a result, more and more young Malays were driven to illicit intercourse to satisfy their sexual desires. – W.T. Chapman, Secretary of Chinese Affairs^[8]

Vulnerable Foreign Women Fall Victim

Today, not much has changed, and some suggest that prostitution is even more rampant than before.

In the past, prostitution hubs were concentrated in areas tied to migration, mining, plantations, or seafaring, such as Georgetown, Ipoh, Johor Bahru, Kuantan, and Kuala Lumpur. Now, sleazy massage parlours have proliferated across Malaysia, with many offering erotic massages with a ‘happy endings’ as part of their services^[13]. 

Forced prostitution is what you mostly see in streets such as Bukit Bintang, Lorong Haji Taib, and Chow Kit Road where prostitution is run from shop houses or cheap hotels modified into brothels. Then you have freelancers who are foreigners who come on social visits and don’t have pimps or agents. They cater to the ‘upscale market’ and operate around Jalan P Ramlee, Jalan Sultan Ismail, Jalan Ampang and of course Bukit Bintang. Basically, anywhere near luxury hotels. – Khen Han Ming, A former hotel security^[14]

The modus operandi and underlying reasons remain unchanged. In 2016, it was discovered that female migrant workers from South and Southeast Asia were increasingly involved in hidden sectors, notably the sex industry. 

Far from home, male migrant workers from various backgrounds flock to areas like Kota Raya, where the underground trade is facilitated by pimps, primarily Chinese or Bangladeshi^[15].

Section 372 of the Penal Code criminalises the exploitation of individuals for prostitution and the advertising of sexual services, including the activities of pimps who arrange or promote these services^[2]. However, enforcement of these laws remains a significant challenge.

They came through human trafficking or syndicates. Sometimes after they come here, the life is tough, their husbands will ask them to go and do sex work. Sometimes when the girls think that they cannot perform very well in housework, and they don’t have money, the agents will suggest them to do sex work. – Glorene A Das, Executive director of Tenaganita^[15]

Nilah*, a 27-year-old divorcee from India with two children and burdened by debt, began working as a cleaner. However, her agent deceived her, and the income from her two-day job was insufficient to support her family or send money home. Her agent then suggested she enter the sex trade, and she reluctantly agreed.

Out of desperation there are some girls who will do it voluntarily, but some of them are being forced because there is high demand, from our own men and women, and tourists  – Glorene A Das , Executive director of Tenaganita^[15]

Alarmingly, there are many underage girls forcibly held in secret brothels and pubs – sold or kidnapped from their countries. Chinese, Vietnamese, Thai, and Cambodian women work as Guest Relations Officers (GROs) in the sprawling karaoke and Japanese bars in Klang Valley^[13]. But Malaysians aren’t excluded from the scene, Minah* who dropped out of her school ended up in the streets and to survive, she turned to sex trade^[16].

Those on the streets are uneducated, school dropouts and illiterate. We have encounters with the worst type of men. – Minah*^[16]

Nowadays, the sex trade has moved online, with social media and the dark web being used to find clients.

Shedding The Sleaze 

Like those in Georgetown, the flesh dens of the past are gradually shedding their sordid history. Even Petaling Street, once infamous for its red-light activities, has transformed, with one of its former brothels now operating as a trendy café. 

However, some areas continue to hold on to their historical reputation. A 2017 report by China Press revealed that Johor Bahru remains a destination where Singaporean senior citizens seek out such services.

Yet another Singaporean, refusing to give his name, said he and his friends headed to Johor Bahru at least once a week in search of these women. He also said they typically spent between RM80-150 on the girls each time they met, depending on the girl’s age and how she looked. – Anonymous Singaporean^[17]

Bukit Bintang has long been known as a hotspot for streetwalkers and was the primary target of raids such as Operasi Noda (Ops Noda) in 2012. This was the first nationwide operation to combat prostitution in Malaysia, resulting in 13,835 raids in its first year.

It’s easy to dismiss these women with terms like “loose women,” “sullied women,” or derogatory media labels such as “pelacur” or “bohsia.” However, sex workers are among the most discriminated groups in the nation, harshly judged for choices they often had little control over.

Meanwhile, those who subscribe to these services, along with the pimps and “bapa ayam” who profit as middlemen, largely escape accountability. The women involved are frequently victims of their circumstances rather than mere offenders.

When the minister asserts that brothels and prostitution have no place in Malaysia, it reflects a continuation of the moral judgments imposed by British authorities, who sought to regulate and stigmatise sex work.

So when talking about prostitution, it’s not just about moral issues alone, although, I am sure, most Malaysians want to pretend that prostitution doesn’t exist because of religious sensitivities. But there is a bigger picture that we need to look at. – Khen Han Ming, a former hotel security^[14]

Prostitution has long been a part of the region’s history, with the stories of past sex workers buried and forgotten, while the stigma they faced remains unspoken. The notion of “sins of the flesh” has been a taboo both historically and in contemporary Malaysia. 

This issue reflects a persistent pattern: women being treated as commodities and facing limited options that drive them into the trade. 

Today, brothels continue to exist in hidden enclaves, revealing that entrenched gender inequalities, the exploitation of women’s bodies, and pervasive poverty still drive individuals into a line of work considered unacceptable by many.

*Name(s) have been changed to protect the privacy and identity of the individual(s). 

Explore our sources:

1. The Star. (2024). M’sia will never allow prostitution, says Fahmi in response to Rosyam. Link 
2. Rosli, A. (2024). History & Law of Prostitution: Can Brothels Exist in M’sia? Cili Sos. Link 
3. Soon, T.W. (2014). Prostitution In Malaysia: A Taboo Subject That Is Surprisingly Big Business, Malaysiandigest.com. Link 
4. Satar, A. (2019). Tougher penalties. New Straits Times. Link 
5. Marican, S. and Mohamed, M.N. (2009) ‘Estimating the number of sex workers in Malaysia’. Kuala Lumpur: World Health Organization. Regional Office for the Western Pacific.
6. Noor, N. and Hamid, B.A. (2019) ‘Representation of sex workers in Malaysian News Media: A critical discourse analysis’, The European Proceedings of Social and Behavioural Sciences [Preprint]. doi:10.15405/epsbs.2020.10.02.1.
7. Purcell, V. (1948). The Chinese in Malaya. Oxford University Press.
8. Long, Y.F.(2023). Prostitution in Colonial Malaya with Special Reference to Penang: Some Preliminary Thoughts. Penang Story. Link 
9. The Star. (2013). Sex in the city. Link 
10.  Zakaria, A.H. (1995). Protecting Girls: Official Measures Against Underaged Girls Rescued From Moral Danger: Kuala Lumpur: University of Malaya Press. 
11. Liang, C. (2023). The Pre-War Japanese Community in Penang (1890 – 1940). Penang Story. Link 
12. Iman, K. (2021). The sad fate of Penang’s pre-war Japanese prostitutes, the karayuki-san. Cili Sos. Link 
13. Hunter, M. (2015). Why Kuala Lumpur could be on its way to becoming the sex capital of Asia. Asian Correspondent. Link 
14. Abu Bakar, S.K. (2017). Prostitution a big problem in Malaysia, says ex-hotel security head. Free Malaysia Today. Link 
15. Malaysiakini. (2016). Unseen women in Kota Raya migrant community. Link 
16. Sabanayagam, N and Kaur, M. (2007). SpotLight: The dark side of sex in the city. New Straits Times. Link 
17. FMT Reporters. (2017). Singaporean ‘uncles’ flocking to JB for fun with hookers. Free Malaysia Today. Link